Minimizing Prejudice
Powlin V. Manuel MD, MBA
Minimizing Prejudice
Prejudice is a mental set up by which we see others beyond the boundaries established for ourselves and our groups. Blatant prejudicial acts are less common recently compared to the past. However prejudice exists on subtle forms at the individual and institutional levels. There are various forms of subtle prejudice which include microagression, micro-assaults and micro-invalidation. Microagression refers to hidden messages: every day insults communicated to others that have intentional insults directed at marginalized group. The actions may at times be outside the awareness of individuals, as unconscious forms causing psychological distress; it is the accumulated repetitive acts that are detrimental and damaging (Fiske, 2009). The different forms of subtle prejudice includes: microagression, micro-assaults, and micro-invalidation. Microagression occurs against ethnic minorities, female gender and individuals with alternative life-styles, and elderly. The subtle forms of racism could be non-intentional by the actor but the recipients view it as insults. The problem continues because the recipients cannot raise the issue or else it will be considered oversensitivity. Micro assaults are conscious level purposeful suggestions that others are inferior. Micro-invalidation of reality is expressed by making such statements the recipient is too sensitive. This form of racism is prevalent at the individual, institutional, and social level.
Microagression in class rooms
A qualitative study supports the observation that difficult dialogues on race and racism are often triggered by racial micro-aggressions that make their appearance in classroom encounters or educational activities and materials. In a study of the existence of the incidence, nature, and impact of everyday sexism as reported by college women, Swimm, Hyers, Cohen, & Ferguson (2002) found that women experienced about one to two impactful sexist incidents per week, consisting of traditional gender role stereotypes and prejudice, demeaning and degrading comments and behaviors. Men reported relatively fewer sexist incidents, suggesting less overall impact on men. Social psychologists have tried to explain the phenomenon of prejudice through various theories (Baron, Branscombe, & Byrne, 2009).
Legitimate Theory:
Legitimate theory explains that the mechanism of prejudice based on group membership was considered legitimate; in other words if you are in a group it is legitimate to make prejudicial statement against the out-group.
The prospect theory:
The prospect theory of prejudice explains prejudice as arising from prospect of losses which outweigh the potential gains from the out-group. Prospect theory identifies important human decision making processes, the origin of which could be traced to evolution and competitive tendency to survive (McDermott, R. James H. Fowler, J.H., & Oleg Smirnov, 2008).
Threat:
Threat could have been a factor as it concerns fear that the group of interest will be undermined.
The realistic conflict theory:
The realistic conflict theory explains the prejudice could be as direct competition to the group as a whole. Intergroup competition can be a source of prejudice (Baron, Branscombe, & Byrne, 2009).
Social identity theory:
Social identity theory explains that the prejudicial action being consequence of perceiving ourselves as a member of social group.
Shifting standards:
Shifting standards is shown by the attitude of using different standards for in group versus the outgroup
Essence:
Essence is the biological feature used to distinguish one group based on biological feature. The idea that minorities are seeking and receiving more benefits than they deserve is being promoted frequently showing evidence of subtle expression of modern racism.
Prejudice according to social identity theory is derived from our tendency to divide the world into us and them. Racial Argument Scale (RAS) has been developed recently to measure the existing prevalence of subtle racism and these studies show that the RAS predicts behavioral measures of racism and that the RAS is able to predict positivity and negativity toward Blacks that is not measured by other self-report measures of racism. These studies suggest that the RAS is a reliable and valid measure of racial attitudes (Saucer, D.A., 2003). The persistence of subtle racism was addressed by Davis (1999). The author concluded that racism has been an enduring and central feature of intercollegiate athletics. Duckitt (1992) argued that the different theories explaining the cause of prejudice focused on explanations of specific racial and historical circumstances meaning the zeitgeist of a particular era.
The following measures could be considered to reduce prejudice. (Sue, 2009):
Intergroup dynamics: Intergroup dynamics need to be established by intimate contact with people other than your type, with people whom you socially do not interact. Developing cooperative rather than competitive environment: when we can operate with shared values and working toward mutually shared goals such as social justice. In addition accurate exchange of information through social conditioning through educational media and supportive attitude of leadership be supportive for intergroup harmony.
The question of how prejudice might be prevented has been a topic of investigation and postulation in many academic circles. Because stereotyping and prejudice emerge in early childhood, developmental research on causal mechanisms is critical for understanding and controlling stereotyping and prejudice (Bigler & Liben, 2007). Such work forms the basis of a new theoretical model, developmental intergroup theory (DIT), which addresses the causes of stereotyping and prejudice. The work suggests that biases may be largely under environmental control and thus might be shaped via educational, social, and legal policies. Pointing the cost of prejudice through education and working against justification for prejudice will form the basis for measures to reduce prejudicial attitudes and practices (Baron, Branscombe & Byrne, 2009). The authors suggest other measures based on contact hypothesis, common in-group identity model which proposes that prejudice can be reduced through re-categorization, emotional techniques for reducing prejudice, invoking collective guilt, and saying "no" to stereotyping,
Reference
Bigler, B.S., & Liben, L. S. (2007). Developmental Intergroup Theory: Explaining and Reducing Children's Social Stereotyping and Prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16 (3) 162-166. doi: 10.1111/j.1467- 8721.2007.00496.
Davis, T. (1999). Essay Racism in Athletics: Subtle yet Persistent. The Board of Trustees of ofUniversity of Arkansas.
Duckin, J. (1992). Psychology and Prejudice: a historical analysis and integrative framework. American Psychologist, 47(10), 1182-1193.
Janet K. Swim1, J.K., Hyers, L.L., Cohen, L.L. & Ferguson, M.(2002). Everyday Sexism: Evidence for Its Incidence, Nature, and Psychological Impact From Three Daily Diary Studies. Journal of Social Issues 57(1), 31-DOI: 10.1111/0022-4537.00200
McDermott, R. James H. Fowler, J.H., & Oleg Smirnov (2008). On the Evolutionary Origin of Prospect Theory Preferences. The Journal of Politics, 70, pp 335-350 doi:10.1017/S0022381608080341
Saucer, D.A.,(2003).The Persuasiveness of Racial Arguments as a Subtle Measure of Racism. Personal Social Psychology Bulletin 29(10), 1305- 1315doi: 10.1177/0146167203254612
Sue, D., Bucceri, J., Lin, A.I., Nadal, K.L., & Torino, G.C. (2009). Racial microaggressions and the Asian American Experience. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 1, 88-101.
Sue, D.W. Capodilupo, C.M., Nadal, K.L., & Torino, G.C (2008). Racial Micro- aggressions and Difficult Dialogues on Race in the Classroom American Psychologist, 63, (4), 277-279
Minimizing Prejudice
Prejudice is a mental set up by which we see others beyond the boundaries established for ourselves and our groups. Blatant prejudicial acts are less common recently compared to the past. However prejudice exists on subtle forms at the individual and institutional levels. There are various forms of subtle prejudice which include microagression, micro-assaults and micro-invalidation. Microagression refers to hidden messages: every day insults communicated to others that have intentional insults directed at marginalized group. The actions may at times be outside the awareness of individuals, as unconscious forms causing psychological distress; it is the accumulated repetitive acts that are detrimental and damaging (Fiske, 2009). The different forms of subtle prejudice includes: microagression, micro-assaults, and micro-invalidation. Microagression occurs against ethnic minorities, female gender and individuals with alternative life-styles, and elderly. The subtle forms of racism could be non-intentional by the actor but the recipients view it as insults. The problem continues because the recipients cannot raise the issue or else it will be considered oversensitivity. Micro assaults are conscious level purposeful suggestions that others are inferior. Micro-invalidation of reality is expressed by making such statements the recipient is too sensitive. This form of racism is prevalent at the individual, institutional, and social level.
Microagression in class rooms
A qualitative study supports the observation that difficult dialogues on race and racism are often triggered by racial micro-aggressions that make their appearance in classroom encounters or educational activities and materials. In a study of the existence of the incidence, nature, and impact of everyday sexism as reported by college women, Swimm, Hyers, Cohen, & Ferguson (2002) found that women experienced about one to two impactful sexist incidents per week, consisting of traditional gender role stereotypes and prejudice, demeaning and degrading comments and behaviors. Men reported relatively fewer sexist incidents, suggesting less overall impact on men. Social psychologists have tried to explain the phenomenon of prejudice through various theories (Baron, Branscombe, & Byrne, 2009).
Legitimate Theory:
Legitimate theory explains that the mechanism of prejudice based on group membership was considered legitimate; in other words if you are in a group it is legitimate to make prejudicial statement against the out-group.
The prospect theory:
The prospect theory of prejudice explains prejudice as arising from prospect of losses which outweigh the potential gains from the out-group. Prospect theory identifies important human decision making processes, the origin of which could be traced to evolution and competitive tendency to survive (McDermott, R. James H. Fowler, J.H., & Oleg Smirnov, 2008).
Threat:
Threat could have been a factor as it concerns fear that the group of interest will be undermined.
The realistic conflict theory:
The realistic conflict theory explains the prejudice could be as direct competition to the group as a whole. Intergroup competition can be a source of prejudice (Baron, Branscombe, & Byrne, 2009).
Social identity theory:
Social identity theory explains that the prejudicial action being consequence of perceiving ourselves as a member of social group.
Shifting standards:
Shifting standards is shown by the attitude of using different standards for in group versus the outgroup
Essence:
Essence is the biological feature used to distinguish one group based on biological feature. The idea that minorities are seeking and receiving more benefits than they deserve is being promoted frequently showing evidence of subtle expression of modern racism.
Prejudice according to social identity theory is derived from our tendency to divide the world into us and them. Racial Argument Scale (RAS) has been developed recently to measure the existing prevalence of subtle racism and these studies show that the RAS predicts behavioral measures of racism and that the RAS is able to predict positivity and negativity toward Blacks that is not measured by other self-report measures of racism. These studies suggest that the RAS is a reliable and valid measure of racial attitudes (Saucer, D.A., 2003). The persistence of subtle racism was addressed by Davis (1999). The author concluded that racism has been an enduring and central feature of intercollegiate athletics. Duckitt (1992) argued that the different theories explaining the cause of prejudice focused on explanations of specific racial and historical circumstances meaning the zeitgeist of a particular era.
The following measures could be considered to reduce prejudice. (Sue, 2009):
Intergroup dynamics: Intergroup dynamics need to be established by intimate contact with people other than your type, with people whom you socially do not interact. Developing cooperative rather than competitive environment: when we can operate with shared values and working toward mutually shared goals such as social justice. In addition accurate exchange of information through social conditioning through educational media and supportive attitude of leadership be supportive for intergroup harmony.
The question of how prejudice might be prevented has been a topic of investigation and postulation in many academic circles. Because stereotyping and prejudice emerge in early childhood, developmental research on causal mechanisms is critical for understanding and controlling stereotyping and prejudice (Bigler & Liben, 2007). Such work forms the basis of a new theoretical model, developmental intergroup theory (DIT), which addresses the causes of stereotyping and prejudice. The work suggests that biases may be largely under environmental control and thus might be shaped via educational, social, and legal policies. Pointing the cost of prejudice through education and working against justification for prejudice will form the basis for measures to reduce prejudicial attitudes and practices (Baron, Branscombe & Byrne, 2009). The authors suggest other measures based on contact hypothesis, common in-group identity model which proposes that prejudice can be reduced through re-categorization, emotional techniques for reducing prejudice, invoking collective guilt, and saying "no" to stereotyping,
Reference
Bigler, B.S., & Liben, L. S. (2007). Developmental Intergroup Theory: Explaining and Reducing Children's Social Stereotyping and Prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16 (3) 162-166. doi: 10.1111/j.1467- 8721.2007.00496.
Davis, T. (1999). Essay Racism in Athletics: Subtle yet Persistent. The Board of Trustees of ofUniversity of Arkansas.
Duckin, J. (1992). Psychology and Prejudice: a historical analysis and integrative framework. American Psychologist, 47(10), 1182-1193.
Janet K. Swim1, J.K., Hyers, L.L., Cohen, L.L. & Ferguson, M.(2002). Everyday Sexism: Evidence for Its Incidence, Nature, and Psychological Impact From Three Daily Diary Studies. Journal of Social Issues 57(1), 31-DOI: 10.1111/0022-4537.00200
McDermott, R. James H. Fowler, J.H., & Oleg Smirnov (2008). On the Evolutionary Origin of Prospect Theory Preferences. The Journal of Politics, 70, pp 335-350 doi:10.1017/S0022381608080341
Saucer, D.A.,(2003).The Persuasiveness of Racial Arguments as a Subtle Measure of Racism. Personal Social Psychology Bulletin 29(10), 1305- 1315doi: 10.1177/0146167203254612
Sue, D., Bucceri, J., Lin, A.I., Nadal, K.L., & Torino, G.C. (2009). Racial microaggressions and the Asian American Experience. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 1, 88-101.
Sue, D.W. Capodilupo, C.M., Nadal, K.L., & Torino, G.C (2008). Racial Micro- aggressions and Difficult Dialogues on Race in the Classroom American Psychologist, 63, (4), 277-279
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